Jinǀʼai Secret Notes

Combining form

 * some CFs are flexible i.e. they can form either nouns or verbs depending on the associated affix. the majority of flexible CFs deal with cultural activities where the verb form refers to doing the activity (XXX to eat, YYY to sing, ZZZ to wash) and the noun refers to the thing most associated with that activity (XXZ food, YYZ song, ZZX wash/laundry)
 * some CFs combine with multiple affixes to form a family of related meanings (mostly body parts; arm,hand,palm of hand,back of hand,finger)
 * usually 1-2 syllables (1-4 mora), freestanding form is usually 2-3 syllables (2-6 mora)
 * coordinate compounds usually do not trigger CF
 * some/most asymmetrical SVCs do not trigger CF
 * -n triggers CF
 * symmetrical SVCs DO trigger CF but the result still needs freestanding morphology to stand on its own; this is usually but not always the same as the freestanding morphology of the final verb
 * diachronic origins: noun+class noun for nouns, preverb+light verb for verbs
 * since there is/was overlap between nouns and preverbs CFs can be sort of precategorical

(NB. this is not reflected in the dictionary sorry)

Extension

 * not always goal since the demoted object from the 'less transitive'/reflexive goes there as well

Voice

 * only the privileged argument can co-refer across clause boundaries (e.g. 花子は入ってくるなり、ドアを閉めた. ・花子が入ってくるなり、ドアを閉めた. – the latter would use the undergoer voice or actually probably extension/goal voice)

Topic marker

 * topicalizing a negated clause triggers converbial negation instead of finite negation (in general topicalized clauses behave as if they're converbs)

The definiteness hierarchy

 * entities are introduced with í ‘one’ + CL/Q + noun
 * after that they are referred to with demonstrative + CL/Q + noun or just CL/Q + noun
 * then they are referred to with bare noun (or headless RC)

Wheat
Wheat is a major staple, primarily in the form of bread but also as bulgur.

- TODO actually maybe get rid of wheat (???) the acorn and buckwheat aesthetic is kinda good honestly + counterpoint vegemite+mayonnaise+shrimp sandwich on bread

Wild rice
A former staple food in the very wet areas near the lake. It has been displaced by wheat much less than acorns were and is still a signature of the cuisine of that region.

Oak
Much of the south is covered in oak savannah.

Acorns were a dominant food source pre-recontact. They are still relatively common, especially in the south and east, but not as a daily food source for most people.

Hickory
Pecans.

It's also the preferred wood for smoking meat.

Black walnut
Walnut.

Amaranth
Common leaf vegetable. Seeds are also eaten and commonly used kind of like bulgur.

Cattail
Widely cultivated even post-recontact for its shoots. The Jinǀʼai actually distinguish two types of shoots from the cattail; one is the new shoots harvested in the spring, the other is lateral shoots off the rhizome harvested in late summer. The rhizome itself was dispreferred as a pre-recontact food source except in times of famine; now starch from it is occasionally used as a thickening agent.

Spices
- Sumac - (smoked) paprika/pimenton

ǁguninǁʼemuna
A sort of pancake made from sourdough starter mixed with cabbage and scallion and fried. Historically this was used as a way to get of sourdough starter prior to feeding the sourdough without throwing it away on days when not making bread; eventually it became a very common breakfast food and people would cultivate extra sourdough for this purpose. In modern times they are a common breakfast food often eaten with yeast extract (ǀgiosen) and mayonnaise. They are also commonly served in cafes.

Mushroom and squash soup
Usually a winter squash, hen-of-the-woods, and napa cabbage cooked in some kind of meat-based? stock. Often eaten with hard-boiled quail eggs.

Verbs
Jį̂ǀʼai verbs constitute a large but closed class. The majority of verbs are transitive, and most or all of the intransitive verbs can be productively transitivized. Semantically, verbs are somewhat general and the semantic content of an event is shared between verb and object.

Verb roots are monomoraic and must have a non-front vowel as their nucleus.

Preverbs

 * Just CFs that do not have a freestanding form

Topic
Topic is an extremely broad notion in Jį̂ǀʼai. The topic essentially sets a sort of framework in light of which the main predication should be interpreted.

Topical NPs
ruí wâ tòmó ǂnu ki ǂʼiri ǃnari ao ba ge ǀawa o míreî sai hàte

Aspect and Actionality

 * Tatevosov (2002)
 * V broadly split into dynamic (default perfective, past time reference), stative (default imperfective, present time reference), and iterative (default imperfective, neutral time reference)
 * dynamic verbs occur with yoo ‘to exist’ which forms a stative progressive verb or ru which creates an iterative habitual verb
 * iterative verbs with yoo strongly implicate present time reference
 * (stative verbs can also occur with yoo which implicates that the state described is temporary or was not always the case or is otherwise capable of changing)
 * stative verbs can take the punctual suffix -to (NB. maybe this is a tonal morpheme instead) which forms a dynamic inceptive verb denoting the beginning of the state
 * iterative verbs with -to result in a dynamic verb denoting a single instance of the iterated action
 * VT〈P,{ES,P}〉 are perfective ES if the quantity of the object is specified and P otherwise, however the ES reading does not necessarily need to culminate

Predicative and argumental readings of nominals

 * Bare nominals do not have to refer, in which case they attribute their property to the actual referred-to entity
 * I man see → argumental ‘man’ refers, I see a/the man; predicative I see him (as a man), I see him (and he is a man)
 * approximately equivalent to the ti/ku distinction in otseqon however only signalled by context
 * (intertextual) context can make one reading more likely, e.g. topicalized time adverbs are more likely to promote a predicative reading (now TOP I [you]PRO man see; note that in this example even though man is overtly present the argument role is actually filled by PRO)
 * -ni contrastive-definite forces an argumental reading
 * however for the most part conditioned by the salience of the noun in the discourse, since new referring nouns are not usually introduced bare a new noun is more likely to be predicative/adjunctual
 * unless marked with ERG/AGN the noun is assumed to predicate over the S/O argument
 * unusual form of noun incorporation that is sort of like the predicative reading (I him see-man)
 * very much like an SVC where the first element is a noun coerced into a verb as it bears much resemblance to manner SVCs (she is fast when she drives ~ he is a man when i see him)

Coordinate compounds

 * Two members of a class are strung together, e.g. father+mother ‘parents’, older_sister+younger_sister ‘siblings’
 * sometimes used in place of the class noun to refer to the class of thing (e.g. common_tree_1+common_tree_2 ‘trees’, fruit_1+fruit_2 ‘fruit’)

Noun incorporation
Jį̂ǀʼai

Body parts and relational nouns
As is typical cross-linguistically, body parts are by far the most commonly incorporated nouns in Jį̂ǀʼai. Unlike other nouns they do not usually result in a valency reduction but serve a sort of possessor-raising function where the owner of the body part because the S/O argument.

1 break-back

VT àù ‘finish’ do-to-completion / resultative
Result of doing V successfully or doing V to completion. Has a failure-oriented counterpart in V₁ càí (§TODO). The resulting verb is necessarily punctual (VT〈-,ES〉). The result state can also be specified lexically instead of using the generic àù (§TODO).

When compared with a lexically specified result state tends to downplay the effort involved in the activity. Can go as far as meaning something like ‘to happen to have done X’, e.g. comparing `look_for see` ‘I found it’ with `look_for àù` the former involves much more searching.

While àù can be used with motion verbs, it is not common in writing and generally requires a locative verb anyway if another verb follows (i.e. `go finish sit eat` ‘PRO went and ate’ is approximately synonymous with `go sit eat` but `go finish eat` is at best unusual).

Unlike VT VT resultative, VT àù necessarily culminates.

VT càí ‘miss a target’ failure
hear miss ‘misunderstand (acoustically)’ understand miss ‘misunderstand (intellectually)’ see miss ‘misperceive visually, mistake for somebody or something else’

ǁaa ‘hold’ VAm
Creates carry-type verbs from motion verbs e.g. ǁaa  ‘bring’, ǁaa  ‘bring down’.

XXX ‘rise’ / YYY ‘fall’ VUp assume-a-position
rise stand ⇒ stand up fall sit ⇒ sit down ? - turn stand ⇒ stand facing another direction

probably semantically related to VAm VUp, although the resulting position is more marked in a sense (that is to say, while `go sit` simply involves the end of motion, `fall sit` involves the actual action of sitting down; accordingly `go sit eat` is an SVC meaning ‘go and eat’, `go fall sit eat` is a clause chaing meaning ‘went [there], sat down, and ate’)

V VUp VUp present-progressive
- basically forces a present tense reading - encourages a sort of ‘still’ interpretation

VT VU causative
The O of VT corresponds to the S of VU. Denotes that the event or state described by VU was brought about by the action of VT. The agent is typically fairly involved in the action.

kxʼùù ‘put’ VU do-in-advance causative
Subtype of VT VU where VT is the verb kxʼùù ‘put’. Denotes that the result state is more important than the process used to achieve the result; moreover, that the process was done beforehand with the intention of the result state being relevant later.

VT$i$ VT$i$ ke causative of anticausative
Subtype of VT VU where VU is the anticausative of VT.

Highly marked version of just VT. May imply that the agent was not expected to succeed at the action.

no tsʼóó kxʼââ kxʼââ-ke

1 door open open-ANTICAUS

‘I got the door open.’

VA VU without shared participants
"Lexically heavy causative" creates a transitive verb where the agent is the subject of VA and the object is the subject of VU (that is, the individual verbs do not actually share any arguments). The event or state described by VU is brought about by the event of VA. The causation relationship may be "looser" than in VT VU constructions or may be accidental.

no ba {ǂhǫǫ cą̂ą̂} se dóò ǁhuni

1 TOP brat ERG shout be_awake

‘I was woken up by the damn kid shouting.’

Almost synonymous with a clause chain like ǂhǫǫ cą̂ą̂ dóò no ǁhuni (brat shout 1 wake) but describes one event.

Often the VU in this construction is an open nominal, e.g. `wind 1 blow cold` ‘the wind blew me cold’ `you sun stand be_black` ‘you're blocking the sun’

VT₁ VT₂ resultative with shared A and O
V₂ expresses a result reached by doing V₁ successfully. Almost synonymous with a similar construction where V₂ is àù ‘put away, finish’ (§TODO) but tends to imply more effort. The resulting verb is necessarily punctual (VT〈-,ES〉).

┌───────────────┬──────┬────────────────────────────────┐ │ V₁           │ V₂   │ Meaning of V₁-V₂               │ ├───────────────┼──────┼────────────────────────────────┤ │ look_for     │ see  │ find                           │ │              │      │                                │ │ squeeze-eye   │ see  │ find                           │ │              │      │                                │ │ squeeze-brain │ see  │ realize, come to a conclusion  │ │              │      │                                │ │ chase         │ meet │ catch up with                  │ │              │      │                                │ │ follow        │ meet │ follow and meet up with        │ │              │      │                                │ │ see           │ know │ understand, realize, recognize │ │              │      │                                │ │ hear          │ know │ understand (what was said)     │ │              │      │                                │ │ learn         │ know │ have learned                   │ │              │      │                                │ │ go            │ sit  │ go sit                         │ └───────────────┴──────┴────────────────────────────────┘

The resultative of a motion verb uses a locative verb (TBD is ‘meet’ a locative verb—is it like stand_together or something—or is it an SVC itself (probably involving stand)—also, the verb join_together/match/unite could be used)—er, this might be too ambiguous with stand-progressive though.

The result state described by V₂ is the intended result state and the V₁ event can be interrupted at some point before V₂ is achieved, i.e. the construction does not necessarily culminate (unlike the VT àù resultative).

This construction is somewhat borderline between a symmetrical and asymmetrical SVC as the options for V₂ are somewhat constrained but are also semantically rather concrete.

see know → understand, recognize, identify, distinguish, tell apart, differentiate,

Lexicon
ruí
 * (N, CN) humanity, man, person, X-ian (e.g. Canadian)
 * 1) forms agent nominalizations from activities that people do (e.g. ǀʼáúruí ‘writer (write-person)’)

wâ
 * (N, Adv) now, soon, immediately

ǹ
 * subject nominalizer (e.g. ǀʼáú-u ǹ  ‘book (it is written)’)
 * written ǹ in the romanization but pronounced [ŋ˩]

?
 * (N) thing, place, case, matter, event, circumstances, 'aboutness', situation, etc

ǂʼiri
 * (N, CN) color
 * 1) (N) expression (on one's face)
 * 2) (N) tone (of voice, etc)
 * 3) (CN) characteristic, personality, character, defining traits
 * 4) (CL, Q) types, kinds, species, etc

jį̂
 * 1) (N) autonym (usu. occurs with a CN denoting a thing associated with jį̂ people e.g. jį̂ǀʼai (Jį̂ language), jį̂ ruí (Jį̂ person), jį̂hu (Jį̂ country))
 * 2) (N) (in compounds) jį̂-style (in contrast to something that foreigners do differently e.g. jį̂ǃxun ‘traditional Jį̂ style room’)

ǂgíí
 * (N, CN) tree (includes large bushes if they're taller than they are wide)

ǀawa
 * (N) forest

ǀʼáú
 * 1) (V) to write
 * 2) (V) to paint

ǂnu
 * (N) water (esp. for cooking, bathing, washing hands, etc) (essentially indoor water usually with a set purpose, excluding immediate and direct consumption, though indirect consumption is fine e.g. water to make tea is ǂnu)

áo
 * (N) water (conceptually), outside water, non-humanized water (i.e. in contrast to ǂnu which has been brought into a human's sphere of influence)

ǁgo
 * 1) (CN) abstract concept of a thing, "-ness"
 * 2) (N) an empty space, a hole (typically something hollowed out of something else i.e. dispreferred if it goes all the way through)
 * 3) (Q) amount necessary to fill a container, a 'holeful' (e.g. "one pot ('holeful') of food")
 * 4) (Adv) fully

sahõ
 * (V) to enter

hu
 * 1) (CN, CL, Q) country, state, region
 * 2) (N) home country, home region, hometown

phó
 * (CN, CL) small round object (it doesn't have to be that round, but it can't have corners)

ǂxo
 * 1) (Q) mouthful
 * 2) (Q) counter for words and phrases (esp. í ǂxo ǀòǀhaǹ ‘one word; one phrase; a few words’)

ǀò
 * (N) tongue

í
 * (QF) one, a (indefinite article), a certain X

mi
 * (QF) two


 * ha
 * 1) (V) to use, to make use of, to put to use
 * 2) (V) to consume (to use up)
 * 3) (V) to speak (to use language)

ǃnǫǃnǫ
 * (N) (informal) breasts

jâù
 * 1) (Q) clouds
 * 2) (Q) rain showers
 * 3) (Q) a group (bunch, cluster) of things which are very hard to count individually but look to be abundant (e.g. í jâù mí ‘a tuft of hair’, í jâù ǂgíí ‘a dense thicket’)

kwo
 * 1) (N) a pair, two closely related entities (still counted by the literal number though e.g. mi he kwo ‘duo (two people pair)’)
 * 2) (Q) counter for pairs (necessarily multiplies the number by 2)

kxʼââ
 * (V) to open (a door) (open connecting things)

ǃnáô
 * (N) type of mat

tsʼóó
 * (N) door

khura
 * (Q, CL) families

ǂhoá
 * 1) (Q) people who were born in the same season and usually in relatively close proximity
 * 2) (Q) fruits of the same season

dzà
 * (Q) group of people or animals of the same age (e.g. í dzà sóó ‘a brood of ducks’, í dzà ǂʼanu ‘a group of adolescents’)

ǀòǀhaǹ
 * (ǀò ǀha ǹ ‘it uses tongue’)


 * 1) (N) speech
 * 2) (N) word, words, phrase, utterance

ǀʼai
 * (CN, CL) language

ǁxùù
 * (Q) group of insects or bats inhabiting the same locality (e.g. í ǁxùù ǃʼę̀ę̀ ǃʼae ‘a colony of bats’, í ǁxùù qó ‘a swarm of bees’)

iu
 * 1) (N) hair
 * 2) (N) head
 * 3) (RelN) top of something, upper tip of something

ke
 * 1) anticausative suffix, removes the agent from transitive verbs denoting a change of state derived verb is VU〈S,ES〉 (agent is not recoverable) (additionally implicates time of event is unknown) tsʼóó ba kxʼââke ‘the door was already open’
 * 2) when applied to undergoer-oriented verbs (VU) introduces a subject that is affected by the action see §TODO

he
 * (Q) counter for people

tòmó
 * (N) boy

ǀgéé
 * 1) (V) to read
 * 2) (V) to count
 * 3) (V) to discover by guesswork or intution (to read someone's thoughts, to infer someone's ulterior motives)
 * 4) (V) (obscure) to dowse (to discover water by dowsing) also ǀgééáo

ǀhoá
 * (CN) bird (especially non-domestic birds i.e. sóó ‘domestic duck’ does not usually cooccur)

sóó
 * (N) domestic duck

qó
 * (N) honey bee (occurrence with ǃʼae ‘CN:insects’ is highly optional)

kxʼùù
 * 1) (V) to put
 * 2) a bunch of other things

ǁnin
 * 1) (V) to take
 * 2) introduces instruments

ǁaa
 * 1) (V) to hold, to possess
 * 2) (aux) to be able to

ǃxae
 * 1) (V) to join in, to participate
 * 2) (V) to help
 * 3) introduces comitatives

ǃxun
 * (N) room, airspace

ǁnen
 * (N, RelN) stomach, inside, within

ǃnąą
 * (VU〈M,-〉) to cry, to weep (not 'to cry out') (used for babies but with a different sound effect)

dóò
 * 1) (VA〈M,Q〉) to shout (usually spontaneously and out of the blue)
 * 2) (VA〈M,Q〉) to bark (of dogs)

cą̂ą̂
 * 1) (CN) young humans (children, babies, etc)
 * 2) forms diminuitives

bii cą̂ą̂
 * (N) baby

ruí cą̂ą̂
 * (N) child, children

kiki cą̂ą̂
 * (N) (col) street urchin, brat, 'the damn kid', 'the little devil'

ǁguni
 * 1) (VU〈-,ES〉) to wake up, to blaze up (of fire), to rise (of bread) (durative SVC is a sort of resultative indicating the result of this, e.g. an awake human or risen bread)
 * 2) (VU〈-,ES〉) (with an event-nominalized clause) to happen, to take place (usually event taking place is not desirable)

ǁgunin
 * sourdough starter

norũ
 * (VT〈M,Q〉) to visit (location)

hun
 * 1) (V) to fall (from the air; rain, snow, ash, pollen, etc)
 * 2) (V) to beam down, to stream in (sunlight, moonlight)

ǃname
 * (N) rain

da
 * optional past tense morpheme tends to implicate the state described no longer holds, also used in counterfactuals, §TODO

tii
 * (CN) parts of hand

ǁnen tii
 * (N) palm of hand

kon tii
 * (N) back of hand

sòò tii
 * (N) finger

kon
 * (N) shell, carapace, peel (of fruit), tough outer layer

sòò
 * (N) finger, toe

yoo
 * 1) (VU〈S,-〉) to exist
 * 2) (VU〈S,?〉) to stay (in a location)
 * 3) forms progressive aspect §TODO

ǁga
 * 1) (CN) tools used with the hand
 * 2) instrument nominalizer

su
 * (VT〈S,ES〉) 恋する

kara
 * (V) to be born, to arise, (+ CAUS) to bring about

àù
 * 1) (V) to put away, to keep, to store
 * 2) (V) to finish, to finish up, to get done with
 * 3) forms resultative constructions in SVCs see §TODO

ǀnúû
 * 1) (V) to squeeze, to wring out
 * 2) (V) to rack (one's brain), to strain (one's eyes or voice) (usually occurs with corresponding body part incorporated)
 * 3) (V) to exploit (an opportunity or situation)

ko
 * 1) (N) heart, spirit, seat of emotion
 * 2) (N) mood, feelings, ambiance, atmosphere
 * 3) often occurs incorporated which forms emotion verbs without reducing valency

càí
 * 1) (V) to miss a target
 * 2) (V) to swerve away from
 * 3) (V) to go on a tangent
 * 4) (in SVCs) to fail in doing, mis-, mal-

ǃʼee
 * 1) (V) to hit the mark, to hit a target, to score
 * 2) (V) to come true, to prove to be right

ǀnai
 * (V) to see, to look at, to watch

ǃnui
 * (V) to eat

ǀgio
 * (N) knife (esp. kitchen knife or carving knife)

kei
 * (CN) way, path, road, manner, style, forms abstract nouns (poor-way poverty, miserable-way misery, be_good-way good behavior, eat-way livelihood, duck-to_look_after-way duck-breeding, book-study-way studies, peaceful-way peace, ...) (see-way viewpoint,way of understanding,way of appreciating)

nano
 * (N) 1st person feminine pronoun, informal

ǃaro
 * (N) 1st person male pronoun, mostly used with The Boys

toka
 * 1) (V) to arrive, to reach
 * 2) in SVCs, marks new events that introduce a change of state

yo
 * reduces transitivity of the verb to the point that the A is more affected by the action than the U, that is essentially unitariness of the A and U; this typically has a reflexive interpretation, however, the former U can be reintroduced as an E argument in which case the whole event has a sort of autobenefactive interpretation for the A

gora
 * 1) (V) to gulp down (food)
 * 2) (V) to nab, to snatch, to pilfer
 * 3) (V) to rip off, to swindle
 * 4) (V) to plagarize

ǂaki
 * 1) (V) to vanish, to disappear
 * 2) (V) to run off, to make a break for it

nue
 * (N) domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris)

kʼin
 * (N) halves (split with the line of force)

ii
 * 1) (V) to shoot
 * 2) (V) to spit

buro
 * (N) chickpea

taku
 * 1) (V) to hit, to strike
 * 2) (V) a lot of other things…

koe
 * (N) 1st person gender neutral and somewhat formal pronoun

hae
 * (N) older sister

ǀine
 * uncooked grains of wild rice (Zizania palustris)

ǂgome
 * (V) to buy

éí
 * 1) (V) to remain
 * 2) (in SVCs) do X well, tightly, firmly, etc

mai
 * 1) (V) to go to (location)
 * 2) (in SVCs) introduces an E argument denoting the target of the action

ǀnoka
 * (N) yesterday

ina
 * (N) mother

ipa
 * (N) father

toe
 * 1) proximal visible demonstrative
 * 2) topic form too

soe
 * 1) medial visible demonstrative
 * 2) topic form soo

ae
 * 1) distal visible demonstrative
 * 2) topic form aa

noe
 * 1) non-visible demonstrative
 * 2) topic form oo

attu
 * proximal location ((t)tu - classifier for places?)

sottu
 * medial location

tottu
 * distal location

kuru
 * 1) (VA〈M,Q〉) to roll
 * 2) (in SVCs) to do over and over again, to do relentlessly

pʼei
 * (N) bread

ǁʼemu
 * (V) to apply heat to (burn, bake, grill, fry (but not deep fry), etc) (exact method depends on the food)

ǃʼan
 * (N) scallion, ramps, generally any longish Allium sp. (prototypical one is scallion)

goeǃʼan
 * (N) ramps (Allium tricoccum) (true ǃʼan; originally only ramps were referred to as ǃʼan; scallions were introduced post-recontact and were also referred to as ǃʼan so ramps became 'true ǃʼan')

sen
 * (N) salt

ǀgiosen
 * (N) yeast extract (knife salt)

ǃgun
 * 1) growing en mass in a location (plants)
 * 2) living gregariously (animals, people)
 * 3) non-solitude

ǂnai
 * (V) become (not gradually, i.e. undergo a change of state without internal structure) (E is the state being entered)

wo
 * 1) locative case
 * 2) indicates reason (when attached to a clause)

wokʼore
 * (N) anger, offense

keeji
 * (N) dry, parched

sossu
 * (V) become gradually (E is the state being tended towards) (does not necessarily have to culminate, can just be the general direction a thing is tending towards)

kuu
 * (V) come, …

ǃʼe
 * (preverb) do with eyes

ya (yaya)
 * (NAdj) quick, fast, early, soon

tesi
 * (N) lower leg, feet

oo
 * (N) big, 大-

pen
 * (N) man, male

ǀnuki
 * 1) (V) to go home
 * 2) (V) to go back

Major reduplication
The entire expressive is reduplicated, usually two to four times. Major reduplication denotes repetition at regular intervals over time, i.e. a sort of temporal plurality.

Reduplication of expressives denoting states (including ones derived with the C₁a- prefix) functions as emphasis/augmentive instead.

-rV₁ː- infix
The initial CV of the root is copied and infixed into the root with a lengthened vowel.

A sort of actionality class for expressives seems to be at play here. The basic meaning of -rV₁ː- is continuation through time, which depending on the actionality class of the expressive can denote either prolongation or continuous repetition. Perhaps an analogy may be drawn here between the P and Q actionality classes and types of expressives. When applied to P-like expressives, -rV₁ː- denotes P of a longer duration, for example hara:cu ‘sound of dragging something across the floor’ and when applied to Q-like expressives, -rV₁ː- produces an M-like expressive with a long duration, for example dara:ŋa ‘appearance of nodding constantly or constantly bobbing up and down’. That is, while Ps can be “stretched out” to fill the longer duration, Qs must be ‘copied’ to take place over a long time.

The infixed V may be iconically lengthened to represent the increased duration.

Roots
pia
 * brightness, piapia sparkling (light / reflection of light)

don
 * sound a drum makes, dondondon with a drumming noise

pyaipyai
 * smiling faintly, smiling lightly

kiri
 * appearance of a crack in something

bakirikori
 * appearance of branching cracks through something e.g. glass or the sky occluded by leafless tree branches/twigs

tusu
 * sound of footsteps, tusutusutusu sound of running fast

daŋa
 * appearance of bobbing up and down, daŋadaŋa nodding, dara:ŋa appearance of nodding constantly or constantly bobbing up and down

hera
 * the sort of up-down alive appearance of breathing, here:ra appearance of something constantly expanding and contracting in a breathing-like way

cupu
 * sound of splashing in water

hacu
 * sound of flat surfaces rubbing against each other (but not sqeaky ones), hara:cu sound of dragging something across the floor

jugu
 * gulping sound, jugujugu sound of chugging something

buruburu
 * off balance, wobbly

fuyufuyu
 * (of weather) be really cold and slightly windy

shiya
 * pure white (esp. a flash of pure white); shashiya appearance of being pure white

doga
 * jet black

wiriwiri
 * liquid swirling around in a glass

gitogito
 * grinding of teeth

gumugumu
 * big and round (eyes, shaven head, stone sphere, etc)

ǀnura
 * (of a lie, of the way someone is acting) obvious, easy to see through

ǃnaki
 * sound of cracking one's knuckles; sound of breaking sticks

zunazuna
 * itching to do something, impatient, eager